I migliori ortopedici di Ortopedia a Istanbul - TOP-129 medici

Il Dott. Olcay Guler porta oltre 15 anni di esperienza ortopedica al Memorial Şişli Hospital, specializzandosi in traumatologia e cura delle articolazioni.

• Lavora in uno dei principali ospedali privati della Turchia
• Vanta un'esperienza estensiva in molteplici istituzioni prestigiose
• Specializzato in casi ortopedici per adulti e pediatrica
• Focalizzato sulla gestione dei traumi e sulla preservazione delle articolazioni

Ha eseguito oltre 1000 interventi chirurgici ortopedici – Il Dr. Bayram è specializzato in procedure artroscopiche e spinali presso l'Hisar Hospital Intercontinental.

• Esperto in interventi chirurgici minimamente invasivi a ginocchio, spalla e caviglia
• Focalizzazione speciale su condizioni spinali come scoliosi ed ernie del disco
• Formazione presso l'Università di Marmara – una delle migliori scuole di medicina della Turchia
• Utilizza tecniche moderne per trattamenti più sicuri ed efficaci

Dr. Ruhat Tanli is a physician in Orthopedics and Traumatology. He graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Medicine (2002–2008). He completed his residency at Kartal Lütfi Kırdar Training and Research Hospital (2009–2014). He has worked in the field since 2009.

He has worked at Şemdinli State Hospital, Lokman Hekim Van Hospital, Fulya Orthopedics and Spine Center, and Van Regional Training and Research Hospital. He later served at Istanbul Beylikdüzü State Hospital (2018–2025). He now practices at Lokman Hekim Istanbul Hospital (2025–present).

Clinical interests include arthroscopy, arthroplasty, trauma surgery, spine surgery, and hand surgery. He is a member of the Emergency Hand Surgery and Microsurgery Association and the Turkish Medical Association.

Specializzato in chirurgia della mano e microchirurgia, il Dott. Mehmet Alp porta oltre 30 anni di esperienza al Memorial Şişli Hospital.

• Ha completato la formazione in chirurgia della mano presso il VKV American Hospital
• Esperto in tecniche microchirurgiche per interventi di precisione
• Esperienza estesa in casi complessi di trauma della mano
• Lavora in un centro ortopedico di primo piano a Istanbul

Prof. Dr. Ahmet Hilmi Kaya is a professor of neurosurgery at Anadolu Medical Center in Gebze, Turkey. He earned his MD from Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa (English program). He completed his neurosurgery residency there from 1996 to 2003. He became a professor in 2015. He also completed observerships at Maastricht University in 2007 and 2009.

His clinical focus includes functional and stereotactic neurosurgery, including deep brain stimulation (DBS) for Parkinson’s disease and essential tremor. He also treats spinal tumors and spinal stenosis and performs spinal instrumentation. He manages skull base and brain tumors. He performs vascular surgery of the central nervous system.

Achievements include leading a Parkinson’s research project at Ondokuz Mayıs University (BAP, Project No. T.597, 2008). He supervised a neurosurgery thesis in 2008. His awards include third place at the 2nd National Congress of the Society of Neurosurgery in 2006, the Turkish Neurosurgical Society Overseas Scholarship in 2008, and the Aysima Altınok Thesis Award in 2009. Several of his papers ranked at the 22nd and 23rd Turkish Neurosurgical Society Scientific Congresses in 2008 and 2009. He is a member of the Turkish Neurosurgical Society and the Turkish Medical Association.

2023 - Present, Istanbul/Türkiye

MEMORIAL ATASEHIR HOSPITAL

Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist

2021 - 2023, Istanbul/Türkiye

MEDICALPARK BAHÇELİEVLER HOSPITAL

Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist

2021 - 2021, Istanbul/Türkiye

MEMORIAL SERVICE HOSPITAL

Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist

2018 - 2021, Istanbul/Türkiye

MEDICALPARK BAHÇELİEVLER HOSPITAL

Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist

2016 - 2016, GERMANY/Türkiye

UNIVERSITY OF DUISBURG-ESSEN

Academic Research Fellow

2013 - 2018, Erzincan/Türkiye

ERZINCAN UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF MEDICINE

Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist

2012 - 2012, Amasya/Türkiye

SULUOVA STATE HOSPITAL

Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist

Dr. Mehmet Taner Ozdemir is an experienced orthopedic specialist with 7 years in the field. He focuses on oncology, orthopedic trauma, arthroscopic surgery, and bone and soft tissue tumors. He completed his medical and specialist training at GATA Faculty of Medicine in Ankara. He also received advanced training at the Hospital for Special Surgery in New York, USA.

Dr. Ozdemir is a member of the Turkish Orthopedics and Traumatology Association and the European Musculoskeletal Tumor Society. He has written five national and thirteen international publications. He is dedicated to improving orthopedic science. His skills include joint replacements, arthroscopies, and tumor surgeries.

After completing his medical doctorate education at Gazi University School of Medicine, which is located in the capital city of Ankara he carried on to his Orthopaedic and Traumatology fellowship training at the same university. After his fellow training, he completed his mandatory governmental and military duties as an orthopaedic surgeon between 2008 and 2011. He later started his Orthopaedic career in Istanbul Acıbadem Hospitals network. Between 2013 and 2022 he served as an academic member of the Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology at Acıbadem Mehmet Ali Aydınlar School of Medicine where he was entitled Associate Professor in 2021. He is now private practicing in his own clinic in Istanbul. 

Starting from the year 2014 he has been especially focused on the fields of patient-specific orthopaedic surgery, computer-aided surgical planning, 3D printed custom surgical guides and implants. These fields are very novel even throughout the world. He performed many surgeries as the first examples of their own for Turkey. He mainly uses his special interest and knowledge on patient-specific orthopaedics to surgically treat technically challenging cases of malunion, bone deformity and complex arthroplasty cases including revision arthroplasty. 

Education and Specialization:

• Medical Degree: Graduated from a reputable medical school.
• Specialization in Orthopedics and Traumatology: Completed his residency with a focus on advanced orthopedic procedures and trauma care.

Professional Experience:

• Current Position: Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist at VM Medical Park Pendik Hospital, Istanbul.
• Extensive Experience: Dr. Tuna has significant experience in treating a wide range of orthopedic conditions and performing complex surgical procedures.

Areas of Expertise:

• Arthroscopic Surgery
• Joint Dislocations and Instability
• Ligament Injuries (ACL tears, etc.)
• Ankle and Shoulder Injuries
• Osteoarthritis and Joint Pain
• Minimally Invasive Surgical Techniques
• Trauma and Fracture Management

Research and Publications: Dr. Tuna has contributed to numerous publications in the field of orthopedics, particularly focusing on innovative surgical techniques and patient outcomes.

Professional Memberships:

• Member of the Turkish Orthopedic and Traumatology Association
• Active participant in various orthopedic conferences and workshops to stay updated with the latest advancements in the field.

Patient Testimonials: Patients frequently commend Dr. Tuna for his expertise, compassionate care, and clear communication. Many patients have reported successful recoveries and high satisfaction with his treatment plans and surgical outcomes​

Dr. Tahir Ozturk is a specialist in Orthopedics and Traumatology. He has worked at top Turkish medical centers, including Memorial Bahçelievler Hospital and Istinye University Faculty of Medicine. He also served at Gaziosmanpaşa University and Şırnak State Hospital. This experience has given him a strong clinical background.

He earned his medical degrees from İzmir Katip Çelebi University and Selçuk University. Dr. Ozturk has completed advanced training in microsurgery, hand surgery, arthroplasty, trauma, and arthroscopy. He regularly attends both international and national conferences. This shows his dedication to ongoing education and modern orthopedic methods.

Dr. Fatih Yildiz is an Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist at Memorial Göztepe Hospital, Istanbul (2025–present). He previously worked at Bezmialem Foundation University, Faculty of Medicine (2013–2025). He also worked at Kızıltepe State Hospital, Mardin (2012–2013). He completed his Orthopedics and Traumatology residency at Istanbul University, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine (2006–2012). He earned his MD from the same faculty (1999–2005).

Professional memberships: TOTBİD (Turkish Orthopedics and Traumatology Association), TOTDER (Turkish Society of Orthopedics and Traumatology), and TOTEK (Turkish Orthopedics and Traumatology Education Council).

Work Experience:

• 2011-2014 (Haziran) Kütahya Tavşanlı Doç. Dr. Mustafa Kalemli Hospital

• 2014(Haziran)-2019 ( Haziran) Kütahya Özel Anadolu Hospital

• 2019- 2020 İstanbul Arnavutköy Hosptial

• 2020- 2023 Özel İstanbul Şafak Hospital

• 2024 -halen OrtoCare Clinic

Education:

▪ 1989-1993 Erzurum High School

▪ 1993-1994 İzmir 60. Yıl High School

▪ 1994-1997 İzmir 60. Yıl High School

▪ 1997-2004 Dokuz Eylül University Medicine Faculty

▪ 2005-2011 Dokuz Eylül Universtiy Orthopaedics and Traumatology Department

Profesional Experience:

• Joint and Cartilage Surgery and Stem Cell treatment

• Sports Medicine and Joint Arthroscopy

• Joint Arhtroplasty (knee- hip-shoulder prothesis)

• Hand Surgery and Microsurgery

• Spinal Surgery

• Traumatolgy

Postgraduate Education:

• 2006 Orthopaedic Trauma Course

• 2008 Monolateral Eksternal Fixator Course

• 2009 Prof. Dr. Rıdvan Ege Han Surgery Course

• 2009 Advanced Orthoapedic Trauma Course

• 2009 Based Arthroscopy Course

• 2010 AO Trauma Course ( Principles in Operative Fracture Treatment)

• 2010 3.Based İntrameduller Nailing Course

• 2011 AO Trauma Course (Advances in Operative Fracture Treatment)

• 2011 2. Advanced İntrameduller Nailing Course

• 2011 XII. Advanced Artrhroscopy Course

• 2012 Ankle Arthroscopy Course

• 2012 Shoulder Artrhroscopy Course

• 2013 AO Trauma Masters Course

• 2013 Knee Arthroplasty and Revision Arthroplasty Course ( Viyana/ Avusturya)

• 2015 Primer and Revision Knee Artrhroplasty Course( Arthroschool Courses)

• 2016 Master Knee Arthroscopy Course ( Acıbadem Univ./ İstanbul )

• 2020 Live lig spinall instrumentation kursu (Medtronic İstanbul)

Congress and Symposiums

• 2002 Eğitim Programı Geliştirme Sempozyumu

• 2004 III. National Medicine Education Congress

• 2017 National Medicine Student Congress

• 2008 8th İnternational Turkish Spine Congress

• 2009 XXI. National Orthopaedy and Traumatology Congress

• 2010 12. National Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery Congress

• 2001 II. National Medicine Education Congress

• 2011 XXII. National Orthopaedy and Traumatology Congress

• 2012 10. ArthroplastyWinter Congress

• 2012 13th European Federation of National Associations of Orthopaedics and Traumatology Congress

• 2012 13. National Hand and Upper Extremity Surgery Congress

• 2013 Osteosynthese İnternational 2013

• 2013 14th European Federation of National Associations of Orthopaedics and Traumatology Congress

• 2014 10th Central European Orthopaedic Congress

• 2014 24. National Orthopaedy and Traumatology Congress

• 2015 25, National Orthopaedy and Traumatology Congress

• 2016 26. National Orthopaedy and Traumatology Congress

• 2017 Eurospine 2017 Congress Ireland

Bibliography:

• 2011 XXII. Ulusal Türk Ortopedi ve Travmatoloji Kongresi Poster Bildirisi (İNTRAMEDULLER

ÇİVİLEME YÖNTEMİ İLE OPERE EDİLEN TİBİA CİSİM KIRIKLI HASTALARIN TAKİBİNDE

KULLANILAN RADYOGRAFİK KAYNAMA SKORLAMA SİSTEMİNİN GÜVENİLİRLİĞİNİN

HASTA KLİNİĞİ İLE DOĞRULANMASI )

• 2013 Osteosynthese İnternational 2013 and İntramedullary Nailing Courses Oral Presentation

(F1.4 Verification of the reliability of the radiographic union score for tibial fractures in

the follow-up of patients with tibia corpus fractures operated via the intramedullary

nailing technique using the patients’ clinical condition. E. Cekic1, E. Alici2,)

• 2014 10th Central European Orthopaedic Congress Oral Presentation ( The Reliability of

Radiographic Union Score).

• Reliability of the Radiographic Union Score for Tibial Fractures Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc

2014;48(5):533-540 doi: 10.3944/AOTT.2014.14.002

• Prediction of tibial nonunion at the 6-week time point Keir A. Ross, Kevin O’Halloran, Renan C.

Castillo, Max Coale, Justin Fowler, Jason W. Nascone, Marcus F. Sciadini, Christopher T. LeBrun,

Theodore T. Manson, Anthony R. Carlini, Josef E. Jolissaint, Robert V. O’Toole*

• Reprodutibilidade do escore radiográfico de consolidac¸ão das fraturas da tíbia (RUST) Fernando

Antonio Silva de Azevedo Filhoa,b,∗, Ricardo Britto Cotiasa, Matheus Lemos Azib e Armando Augusto

de Almeida Teixeiraa

• Does weight-bearing assignment after intramedullary nail placement alter healing of tibial shaft

fractures? D.A. Greenhilla,∗, M. Poormanb, C. Pinkowskib, F.V. Ramseyb, C. Haydela

• Will My Tibial Fracture Heal? Predicting Nonunion at the Time of Definitive Fixation Based on

Commonly Available Variables

Kevin O’Halloran MD, Max Coale BA, Timothy Costales BS,Timothy Zerhusen Jr BS, Renan C. Castillo PhD,

Jason W. Nascone MD,Robert V. O’Toole MD

• Feasibility and Value of Radiographic Union Score Hip Fracture after Treatment with Intramedullary

Nail of Stable Hip Fractures

• Image quality of cone beam computed tomography for evaluation of extremity fractures in the presence

of metalhardware: visual grading characteristics analysis

1GREG M OSGOOD, MD, 2GAURAV K THAWAIT, MD, 2NIMA HAFEZI-NEJAD, MD,

2DELARAM SHAKOOR, MD,1ADAM SHANER, MD, 3JOHN YORKSTON, PhD, 4WOJCIECH B

ZBIJEWSKI, PhD, 4JEFFREY H SIEWERDSEN, PhDand 2SHADPOUR DEMEHRI, MD

• Correlation Between RUST Assessments of Fracture Healing to Structural

and Biomechanical Properties

Margaret E. Cooke,1 Amira I. Hussein,1 Kyle E. Lybrand,1 Alexander Wulff,1 Erin Simmons,1

Jeffrey H. Choi,1 Jody Litrenta,1William M. Ricci,2 Jason W. Nascone,3 Robert V. O’Toole,3 Elise F.

Morgan,4 Louis C. Gerstenfeld,1 Paul Tornetta III1

• EXPLORING PROGNOSTIC FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH

ADVERSE OUTCOMES IN PATIENTS WITH FRACTURES OF THE

TIBIAL SHAFT

By RAMAN MUNDI, MD, BHSc

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirements for the Degree Master of Science

McMaster University

• Value of a radiographic score for the assessment of healing of nailed femoral

and tibial shaft fractures: A retrospective preliminary study

Vasiliki Perlepea,⁎, Andrea Ceratoa, Dan Putineanua, Celine Buglib, Guy Heynend,

Patrick Omoumia,c, Bruno Vande Berga

About me

I graduated from Izmir Dokuz Eylul University with the orthopedics branch. After I graduated, I carried out some

studies focusing on especially on

joint and cartilage surgery and stem cells. In this, I worked with many professional and amateur sport clubs. Also,

I worked on joint replacement surgery

for further aged people. Approximately, I achieved 10 thousand people who took knee and hip replacement

surgery from me. I attended to many international conferences about joint and cartilage surgery. Now I start

Ortocare Clinic for orthopedics and health center. In here, I treat my patients using the most advanced

technologies in the world, such as foot health centers, electromagnetic therapy, cryocabin therapy, backup

therapy and stem cell therapy. In our clinic, I continue to my work on non-surgical treatments, especially antiaging

treatment, and to eliminate pain problems in patients. On top of that, I also carry out some post-operative

rehabilitation and medical plates exercises.

Il dott. Sami Sokucu è un chirurgo ortopedico doppiamente certificato con oltre 20 anni di esperienza, specializzato in ricostruzioni complesse di articolazioni e ossa presso VM Medical Park Florya Hospital.

• Certificato sia dal Consiglio Turco che da quello Europeo di Ortopedia e Traumatologia
• Autore di oltre 20 studi peer-reviewed sulle tecniche ortopediche avanzate
• Esperto in procedure mini-invasive per un recupero più rapido
• Membro della facoltà presso la Istanbul Aydın University, dove forma i futuri specialisti in ortopedia

Key Areas of Expertise:

Trauma and Emergency Orthopedics: Dr. Aydın is an expert in managing traumatic injuries, including fractures, dislocations, and soft tissue injuries. His approach is focused on minimizing recovery time and ensuring the best possible functional outcomes for patients.

Joint Replacement Surgery: Specializing in hip, knee, and shoulder replacement surgeries, he has performed numerous successful joint replacements, offering patients relief from chronic pain and enhanced mobility.

Sports Injuries: Dr. Aydın has an in-depth understanding of sports-related injuries, including ligament tears, tendon ruptures, and cartilage damage. He employs both conservative and surgical techniques to help athletes recover and return to their active lifestyles.

Spine Surgery: His experience extends to treating various spine conditions, such as degenerative diseases, herniated discs, and spinal deformities. He uses minimally invasive techniques whenever possible to reduce recovery times and improve surgical outcomes.

Pediatric Orthopedics: Dr. Aydın also has expertise in treating musculoskeletal conditions in children, such as congenital deformities, growth plate injuries, and scoliosis.

Arthroscopy: Skilled in minimally invasive arthroscopic surgery, Dr. Aydın can diagnose and treat conditions affecting joints, including the knee, shoulder, and ankle, with reduced scarring and quicker recovery.

Complex Trauma and Reconstruction: With a focus on treating complex fractures and trauma cases, he is skilled in using advanced surgical techniques to restore function and structure to severely injured bones and soft tissues.

Academic and Research Contributions:

Dr. Aydın’s position as an Associate Professor underscores his dedication to advancing the field through both teaching and research. He actively contributes to medical literature, presenting innovative findings and new treatment methodologies in orthopedics and traumatology. His research interests include improving patient outcomes in fracture healing, developing better surgical techniques, and exploring the use of regenerative medicine in orthopedic care.

Clinical Approach:

Dr. Aydın takes a patient-centered approach, tailoring treatment plans to meet the unique needs of each individual. He emphasizes early intervention, advanced diagnostic tools, and personalized rehabilitation strategies to ensure optimal recovery.

Through his extensive knowledge and experience in orthopedics and traumatology, Dr. Murat Aydın has earned a reputation for excellence in patient care, making him a highly respected figure in his field.

Prof. Dr. Çağatay Öztürk is a specialist in orthopaedics and traumatology. He qualified as a specialist in 2004. He is Head of the Department at Istinye University. He founded and directs the Liv Spine Center, which is certified as a Center of Excellence by the AOSpine Society. He graduated from the Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine in 1997 and became a professor in 2017.

He continues clinical and academic work at Liv Hospital Ulus, Liv Hospital Vadi Istanbul, Liv Hospital Bahçeşehir, and Liv Bona Dea Hospital Baku. He also performs surgeries in Iraq, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, North Macedonia, Morocco, Montenegro, Albania, and Mongolia.

Education

• (1998-2004), Bachelor's Degree Hacettepe University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara
• (2005-2010), Doctorate / Specialization in Medicine Haydarpaşa Numune Training and Research Hospital

Experience

• 2005-2011, Assistant Doctor Haydarpaşa Numune Training and Research Hospital, Department of Radiology
• 2011-2013, Specialist Doctor Kahramanmaraş Women's and Children's Hospital, Kahramanmaraş Necip Fazıl City Hospital (mandatory service)
• 2013-2022, Specialist Doctor Ministry of Health Fatih Sultan Mehmet Training and Research Hospital, Department of Radiology
• 2022, Associate Professor Ministry of Health Fatih Sultan Mehmet Training and Research Hospital, Department of Radiology

EXPERIENCE

1997 – today

Gayrettepe Florence Nightingale Hospital

Orthopedics and Traumatology specialist

1996 – 1997

Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology

Chief Assistant Specialist Doctor

1992 – 1996

Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine

Orthopedics and Traumatology, Specialist

1992 – 1996

Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine Department of Orthopedics and Traumatology

Assistant Physician

1987 – 1991

Adana Reşat Bey Health Center

General practitioner

1985 – 1987

Trabzon Maçka (Compulsory Service)

General practitioner 

CLINICAL FOCUS 

Sports Injuries

Orthopedic Trauma

Knee Arthroscopy

Hip Arthroscopy

EDUCATION

Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine

Medical Education

Dr. Nurullah Ermiş has published from 2010 to 2024 on orthopaedic trauma, spine surgery, hip arthroplasty, and regional anesthesia. His work is indexed in PubMed and Scopus.

Highlights include an irreducible ankle fracture‑dislocation caused by tibialis posterior tendon interposition (J Foot Ankle Surg., 2010; PubMed). Another report covers an irreducible posterolateral knee dislocation due to medial meniscus interposition (Acta Orthop Traumatol Turc., 2011; PubMed). He examined scoliosis and kyphosis after sternotomy or thoracotomy (J Turk Spinal Surg., 23(2):83‑90, 2012). Additional JTSS papers appeared in 2012 and in 2017 (28(4):283‑288). He reported on ESPB and QLB in hip surgery (Indian J Anaesth., 62(10):802, 2018; Anesth Essays Res., 12(4):825‑831, 2018; ESRA 2018). He studied outcomes of hip prosthesis for Crowe IV dysplastic coxarthrosis (Medicine Science, 13(4):873‑878, 2024). He also described medial superior cluneal nerve entrapment (SAGE Journals).

Objective:
To utilize my expertise in Pediatric Orthopedics, Hand Surgery, Arthroplasty, and Trauma within a progressive medical institution, contributing to patient care, research, and academic development.

Work Experience:

Şırnak State Hospital, Orthopedics and Traumatology Specialist
March 2022 - Present

• Lead orthopedic surgeon specializing in pediatric orthopedics, hand surgery, arthroplasty, and trauma.
• Conducting surgical interventions, consultations, and post-operative care for patients with diverse orthopedic conditions.
• Collaborating closely with multidisciplinary teams to devise and implement comprehensive treatment plans.
• Actively participating in hospital rounds, conferences, and educational initiatives.

İstanbul Şişli Etfal Training and Research Hospital, Orthopedics and Traumatology Residency
July 2017 - February 2022

• Completed a rigorous residency program focused on orthopedic surgery and traumatology.
• Rotated through various subspecialties including pediatric orthopedics, hand surgery, and arthroplasty.
• Assisted in surgical procedures, outpatient clinics, and emergency consultations.

Education:

İstanbul Şişli Etfal Training and Research Hospital, Orthopedics and Traumatology Residency
2017-2022

• Residency training program specializing in orthopedic surgery and traumatology.

Trakya University, Orthopedics and Traumatology Residency
2016-2017

• One-year residency program focusing on orthopedic surgery and traumatology.

Gaziantep University, Faculty of Medicine
2009-2016

• Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree.

İçel Anatolian High School
2005-2009

• High School Diploma.

Professional Memberships:

• Turkish Society of Orthopedics and Traumatology (TOTBİD)
• Turkish Orthopedic and Traumatology Institute (TOTDER)
• Turkish Society of Sports Traumatology, Arthroscopy, and Knee Surgery (TUSYAD)

Skills:

• Proficient in diagnosing and treating orthopedic conditions in both pediatric and adult patients.
• Skilled in performing various orthopedic surgeries including arthroplasty, hand surgery, and trauma procedures.
• Strong interdisciplinary collaboration and communication skills.
• Committed to continuous professional development and continuing medical education.